It was slower in those scattered territories that were founded through imperial privileges.The difficulties in electing the king eventually led to the emergence of a fixed college of Prince-electors (Kurfürsten), whose composition and procedures were set forth in the Golden Bull of 1356.
During the Thirty Years' War, the Duke of Bavaria was given the right to vote as the eighth elector. These rights were now explicitly rooted in Roman Law, a far-reaching constitutional act.Frederick's policies were mainly aimed at Italy, where he clashed with the increasingly wealthy and free-minded cities of the north, especially Milan. The conflict ended in 1122, when Emperor Henry V and Pope Calixtus II agreed on the Concordat of Worms. This only changed after the end of the Salian dynasty in the 12th century.In 955, Otto won a decisive victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld. Napoleon reorganized much of the Empire into the Confederation of the Rhine, a French satellite. Since Otto I (936-972) the bishops had been princes of the empire, had secured many privileges, and had become to a great extent feudal lords over great districts of the imperial territory. He became afraid to act when the Catholic Church was forcibly reasserting control in Austria and Hungary and the Protestant princes became upset over this. The Council of Imperial Cities was not fully happy with the others; it could not vote on several matters such as the admission of new territories. The last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924.A few decade earlier, around 900, autonomous stem duchies (Franconia, Bavaria, Swabia, Saxony, and Lotharingia) reemerged in East Francia.
Here, the king and the dukes agreed on four bills, commonly referred to as the Reichsreform (Imperial Reform): a set of legal acts to give the disintegrating Empire back some structure.
At this time, many local dukes saw it as a chance to oppose the hegemony of Emperor Charles V. The empire then became fatally divided along religious lines, with the north, the east, and many of the major cities-Strasbourg, Frankfurt and Nuremberg-becoming Protestant while the southern and western regions largely remained Catholic.From 1515 to 1523, the Habsburg government in the Netherlands also had to contend with the Frisian peasant rebellion, led first by Pier Gerlofs Donia and then by his nephew Wijerd Jelckama. Without the presence of the king, the old institution of the Hoftag, the assembly of the realm's leading men, deteriorated. Nevertheless, their participation was formally acknowledged only as late as in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years' War.The Empire also had two courts: the Reichshofrat (also known in English as the Aulic Council) at the court of the King/Emperor, and the Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court), established with the Imperial Reform of 1495.As part of the Imperial Reform, six Imperial Circles were established in 1500; four more were established in 1512. The conflict between several papal claimants (two anti-popes and the legitimate Pope) was only resolved at the Council of Constance (1414-18); after 1419, much energy was spent on fighting the Hussites. Otto prevailed for a while after Philip was murdered in a private squabble in 1208 until he began to also claim Sicily. In Germany, the Emperor had repeatedly protected Henry the Lion against complaints by rival princes or cities (especially in the cases of Munich and Lübeck). Following the example of Charlemagne’s coronation as “Emperor of the Romans” in 800, Otto was crowned emperor in 962 by Pope John XII in Rome, thus intertwining the affairs of the German kingdom with those of Italy and the papacy. Before that date in 1530, he was called Emperor-elect too.The Emperor was crowned in a special ceremony, traditionally performed by the Pope in Rome, using the Imperial Regalia.
It must not be confused with the Imperial Army (Kaiserliche Armee) of the Emperor.Despite appearances to the contrary, the Army of the Empire did not constitute a permanent standing army that was always at the ready to fight for the Empire. A brief but significant struggle over investiture also occurred between Henry I of England and Pope Paschal II in the years 1103–1107, and the issue also played a minor role in the struggles between church and state in France.By undercutting the imperial power established by previous emperors, the controversy led to nearly fifty years of civil war in Germany, and the triumph of the great dukes and abbots. Francis' House of Habsburg-Lorraine survived the demise of the Empire, continuing to reign as Emperors of Austria and Kings of Hungary until the Habsburg empire's final dissolution in 1918 in the aftermath of World War I.The Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine was replaced by a new union, the German Confederation, in 1815, following the end of the Napoleonic Wars. After the 16th century, this elected monarch governed the Holy Roman Empire (later called Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation), a Central European union of territories of the Medieval and Early Modern period.The title of Emperor (Imperator) carried with it an important role as protector of the Catholic Church. Earlier, the empire’s strength (and finances) greatly relied on the empire’s own lands, the so-called The “constitution” of the empire still remained largely unsettled at the beginning of the 15th century. Cologne 40,000. Both the Pope and the German princes had surfaced as major players in the political system of the Empire.When the Salian dynasty ended with Henry V's death in 1125, the princes chose not to elect the next of kin, but rather Lothair, the moderately powerful but already old Duke of Saxony.
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